Resources And Development (Advanced)

Types Of Resources

Understanding resources involves a more nuanced classification than previously discussed, examining them from multiple perspectives to grasp their complexity and importance in development. Resources are classified based on their origin, exhaustibility, ownership, and stage of development.

On The Basis Of Origin

This classification distinguishes resources based on their fundamental nature:

• Biotic Resources: These are living resources obtained from nature. They include forests, wildlife, fisheries, livestock, and human beings themselves. They are renewable if managed properly, as they reproduce and replenish naturally.
• Abiotic Resources: These are non-living resources. They comprise non-living things like land, soil, water, air, minerals (like iron ore, coal, petroleum), and rocks. Many abiotic resources, particularly minerals and fossil fuels, are non-renewable.

On The Basis Of Exhaustibility

This classification focuses on whether a resource can be replenished once used:

• Renewable Resources: Resources that can be replenished by natural processes relatively quickly, within a human lifespan. They can be used without depleting their stock.
  • Continuous: Resources like solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, and water (though water availability can be limited locally) are available continuously.
  • Biological: Resources like forests, wildlife, fisheries, and livestock reproduce through biological processes. Their renewability depends on sustainable harvesting and management.
• Non-Renewable Resources: Resources that exist in fixed quantities in the Earth and take millions of years to form. Their rate of formation is much slower than their rate of consumption, meaning they are finite. Examples include fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and minerals (iron, copper, bauxite).

On The Basis Of Ownership

This classification categorizes resources based on who owns and controls them:

• Individual Resources: Resources owned by private individuals. For instance, land owned by farmers, houses, plantations, livestock owned by individuals.
• Community-Owned Resources: Resources accessible to all members of a community. Examples include public parks, grazing grounds, burial grounds, village ponds, and fishing areas in ponds or rivers.
• National Resources: Resources belonging to a nation. All minerals, water bodies, forests, wildlife, land within political boundaries, and territorial waters (extending up to 12 nautical miles or 22.2 km from the coast) are considered national resources.
• International Resources: Resources that are beyond national jurisdiction. The oceanic resources beyond the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which extends up to 200 nautical miles or 370 km from the coast, are international resources. No single country can utilize these resources without the consensus of international organizations.

On The Basis Of The Status Of Development

This classification looks at the stage of development and utilization of resources:

• Potential Resources: Resources that are found in a region but are not being used at present. Their future use might depend on technological advancements and economic feasibility. For example, solar and wind energy are potential resources in many parts of India that are not yet fully exploited.
• Developed Resources: Resources that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality have been determined, and they are currently being used for development. The availability of technology and capital influences their development.
• Stock Resources: Resources that have the potential to satisfy human needs but cannot be used due to insufficient technology or economic constraints. These are part of the potential resources but are not yet being utilized. For example, water as a source of energy can be developed using technologies like dams, but its full potential is not yet tapped everywhere.
• Reserve Resources: A part of the stock resources which can be utilized with the help of existing technology and know-how. Reserves are specific subsets of potential resources that are economically viable to extract with current technology. For example, forests can be considered a stock resource, but specific, sustainably managed forest areas suitable for timber extraction could be considered reserves.

Development Of Resources

The development of resources is intrinsically linked to human needs and technological progress. However, unchecked development can lead to depletion and environmental degradation. Therefore, a focus on sustainable development is crucial.

Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is a balanced approach that integrates economic development, social equity, and environmental protection.

Key principles include:

• Conservation of Resources: Using resources judiciously and avoiding wastage.
• Minimizing Pollution: Reducing the environmental impact of resource use and industrial activities.
• Equity: Ensuring fair distribution of resources and development benefits, both within and between generations.
• Preservation of Biodiversity: Protecting ecosystems and species for their intrinsic value and for future use.

Rio De Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

The Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, officially the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), was a major international conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. It was the first large-scale global summit focused on environmental and developmental issues.

Key Outcomes and Significance:

• Global Consensus: It brought together leaders from 172 countries to address pressing environmental problems and discuss sustainable development.
• Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: It established principles for sustainable development, emphasizing the link between environment and development and the responsibility of nations to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause damage to the environment of other states.
• Agenda 21: A comprehensive action plan for sustainable development in the 21st century.
• Conventions: Led to the signing of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD).
• Promoting Sustainable Development: It was a landmark event that firmly placed sustainable development on the global agenda and highlighted the need for international cooperation.

Agenda 21

Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan adopted at the Rio Earth Summit. It is a comprehensive blueprint for sustainable development that aims to achieve global environmental protection, socio-economic development, and people's participation in decision-making.

• Scope: It addresses a wide range of issues, including poverty, consumption patterns, population, human health, habitat, air quality, land resources, forests, biodiversity, biotechnology, waste management, and water resources.
• Objectives: To promote sustainable practices at local, national, and international levels, ensuring environmental quality and equitable economic and social development for all.
• Local Agenda 21: A key aspect of Agenda 21 is its emphasis on local action, encouraging local governments to develop their own 'Local Agenda 21' plans tailored to their specific needs and circumstances. This promotes community involvement and grassroots action for sustainability.

Resource Planning

Resource planning is a complex process of identifying, assessing, and managing resources to ensure their sustainable use for present and future needs. It involves a careful balance between resource availability, economic viability, and environmental and social considerations.

Resource Planning In India

India, with its diverse geographical and socio-economic conditions, faces significant challenges in resource planning. The planning process involves several stages:

1. Identification and Inventory: This involves surveying, mapping, and quantifying the available resources (minerals, water, land, forests) across the country.
2. Estimating the Stock: Determining the quantity and quality of identified resources, and assessing their potential for exploitation.
3. Matching Resources with Development Plans: Aligning the availability of resources with the country's developmental goals and strategies. This involves considering which resources are needed for which sectors (agriculture, industry, energy).
4. Evaluating the Economic Viability and Sustainability: Assessing whether the exploitation of a resource is economically feasible and environmentally sustainable in the long run.

India has made efforts in resource planning through various government initiatives, Five-Year Plans, and specific policies for different resources (e.g., National Water Policy, Forest Policy). However, challenges remain in equitable distribution and efficient management.

Conservation Of Resources

Resource conservation is a critical component of resource planning and sustainable development. It involves using resources wisely to prevent their depletion and minimize environmental damage.

Key Conservation Strategies:

• Reducing Consumption and Waste: Practicing the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" mantra for materials like paper, plastic, metals, and water.
• Efficient Technology: Employing technologies that use resources more efficiently and produce less waste (e.g., energy-efficient appliances, water-saving irrigation).
• Substitution: Replacing non-renewable or scarce resources with renewable or more abundant alternatives (e.g., solar and wind energy replacing fossil fuels).
• Protection of Ecosystems: Conserving forests, wetlands, and biodiversity as they play vital roles in maintaining natural resource cycles.
• Sustainable Extraction: Managing the extraction of minerals and water to ensure that their depletion rates are manageable and their environmental impact is minimized.
• Public Awareness and Education: Raising awareness about the importance of conservation and encouraging responsible behaviour.

Land Resources

Land is a fundamental natural resource upon which all human activities are based. It supports natural vegetation and wildlife, is essential for agriculture, industries, and human settlements. Understanding land utilization and its conservation is vital.

Land Utilisation

Land can be classified based on its various uses:

• Forests: Areas covered by forest cover.
• Land Not Available for Cultivation: Includes barren and unculturable land (e.g., rocky terrain, deserts), land covered by snow and glaciers, and land used for non-agricultural purposes (buildings, roads, railways, industries).
• Other Uncultivated Land (excluding fallow land): Includes permanent pastures, grazing lands, land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves, and barren land that has the potential for cultivation.
• Fallow Lands: Lands temporarily left uncultivated to allow them to regain fertility.
  • Current Fallow: Land left uncultivated for one or more crop seasons but less than five years.
  • Fallow Lands other than Current Fallow: Land left uncultivated for five or more consecutive crop seasons.
• Net Sown Area: The total area sown once or more in an agricultural year. If the same land is sown more than once, it is counted only once.

Land Use Pattern In India

India's land use pattern is influenced by its large population and diverse physical environment. The classification of available land is as follows:

• Forest Cover: Approximately 24.56% of the total geographical area (as per ISFR 2021), which is below the national goal of 33%.
• Land Not Available for Cultivation: Around 10% of the land includes barren and unculturable land, and land used for non-agricultural purposes (roads, buildings, industries).
• Other Uncultivated Land: Includes permanent pastures, grazing lands, and land under tree crops and groves, constituting about 5-6% of the total land.
• Fallow Lands: The area under current fallow and other fallow lands is around 10-12% of the total land.
• Net Sown Area: Remains the most significant category, around 57% of the total geographical area, but has shown a declining trend in proportion to the increase in land used for non-agricultural purposes.

Factors influencing land use patterns in India include:

• Physical Factors: Topography, climate, soil type.
• Economic Factors: Population pressure, agricultural practices, industrialization, urbanization.
• Government Policies: Land ceiling acts, forest policies, agricultural reforms.

Land Degradation And Conservation Measures

Land degradation refers to the decline in the quality of land, resulting in reduced productivity. It is caused by both natural and human factors.

• Causes of Land Degradation:
• Deforestation: Loss of tree cover leads to soil erosion.
• Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by livestock removes vegetation cover, leading to soil erosion.
• Mining and Quarrying: Industrial activities that disturb the land surface and lead to pollution.
• Agriculture Practices: Improper methods like continuous cultivation without fallowing, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and irrigation in arid/semi-arid regions leading to salinization and waterlogging.
• Industrial and Urban Waste: Dumping of industrial effluents and waste pollutes land.
• Conservation Measures:
• Afforestation and Planting of Shelter Belts: Planting trees to prevent wind erosion, especially in sandy areas.
• Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along contour lines to slow down water runoff and prevent soil erosion on slopes.
• Terrace Farming: Creating terraces on slopes to check soil erosion and conserve water.
• Proper Grazing Management: Regulating grazing to prevent overgrazing.
• Stabilization of Sand Dunes: Planting thorny bushes and trees to bind sand.
• Controlling Mining and Quarrying Activities: Regulating these activities and undertaking reclamation of mined areas.
• Management of Industrial and Urban Waste: Treating waste before disposal to prevent land pollution.
• Water Management: Efficient irrigation techniques and rainwater harvesting to prevent salinization and waterlogging.

Soil As A Resource

Soil is a vital renewable resource that supports plant life, which in turn sustains all living organisms. It is a complex mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support plant life. The formation of soil is a slow, intricate process influenced by several factors.

Classification Of Soils

Soils in India are classified based on their colour, texture, composition, and location. The major soil types are:

Alluvial Soils

Alluvial soils are deposited by rivers, streams, and glaciers. They are found in the river valleys, flood plains, and coastal plains. They are typically rich in humus, lime, and potash, making them very fertile and suitable for agriculture.

• Characteristics: Sandy to silty or clayey texture, porous, rich in humus and minerals.
• Areas: Northern plains (Indo-Gangetic plain: Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam), deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.
• Crops: Rice, wheat, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds.

Black Soil

Black soils are also known as `Regur` soils or Black Cotton Soils. They are ideal for growing cotton and are also suitable for other crops like groundnuts, wheat, and millets.

• Characteristics: Deep black, clayey, and well-drained. They are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, and lime, but deficient in phosphorus, nitrogen, and humus. They swell when wet and shrink when dry, developing cracks.
• Formation: Formed from weathering of basaltic rocks.
• Areas: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka.
• Crops: Cotton, sugarcane, wheat, jowar, bajra.

Red And Yellow Soils

Red and yellow soils are developed on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall. They are found in eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau and parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, western Ghats, and Rajasthan.

• Characteristics: Reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. They appear yellow when they occur in a hydrated form. They are generally sandy to loamy in texture and are found in areas with tropical monsoon climates. They are less fertile than alluvial or black soils but can be made fertile with proper treatment.
• Areas: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, parts of Rajasthan.
• Crops: Can grow various crops like wheat, rice, millets, pulses, cotton, sugarcane with proper irrigation and fertilizers.

Laterite Soil

Laterite soil develops in areas of high temperature and high rainfall, leading to leaching. It is rich in humus and moisture but poor in plant nutrients.

• Characteristics: Reddish-brown colour, clayey texture, acidic. Rich in iron and aluminium oxides but deficient in lime, nitrogen, potash, and phosphorus.
• Areas: Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Assam.
• Crops: Suitable for cultivation with adequate manuring and irrigation. Famous for cashew nut cultivation. Suitable for plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber in hilly areas.

Arid Soils

Arid soils are found in dry regions and areas with limited rainfall. They are typically sandy in texture and have a reddish-brown colour.

• Characteristics: Sandy, porous, and dry. Often rich in salt content and deficient in humus and moisture.
• Areas: Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat.
• Crops: Can be made cultivable with proper irrigation and conservation techniques. Suitable for drought-resistant crops like millets and barley.

Forest Soils

Forest soils are found in hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rainfall is available. These soils are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarser in the upper slopes.

• Characteristics: Varies greatly depending on the mountain environment. Often rich in humus but deficient in plant nutrients due to slow decomposition in cold conditions.
• Areas: Hilly regions of the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats.
• Crops: Suitable for plantation crops like tea, coffee, spices, and fruits in suitable climates.

Soil Erosion And Soil Conservation

Soil erosion is the process by which topsoil is detached and transported by agents like wind and water. It is a major threat to soil productivity.

• Causes: Deforestation, overgrazing, construction, mining, faulty agricultural practices.
• Consequences: Loss of fertile topsoil, reduced agricultural output, siltation of rivers and reservoirs, increased risk of floods and landslides.

Soil Conservation Measures (as detailed in previous sections):

• Afforestation
• Contour Ploughing
• Terrace Farming
• Mulching
• Intercropping
• Crop Rotation
• Shelter Belts
• Controlling Overgrazing